Rousseau’s The Social Contract
Jean–Jacques Rousseau was the maverick of the
Enlightenment. Born a Protestant in Geneva in 1712 (d. 1778), he had to
support himself as a music copyist. Unlike Voltaire and Montesquieu,
both of whom came from rich families, Rousseau faced poverty nearly all
his life. He wrote on an astounding variety of topics, including a
best–selling novel (Julie or the New Heloïse, 1761), a major
tract on education (Émile, 1762), and the work selected here,
The Social Contract (1762). Rousseau believed that life in society
was essentially corrupting, but that men (it is not clear whether women
figured in the social contract) could achieve true morality by joining
in the social contract and living under laws that they themselves made.
Rousseau’s concept of the "general will" can be, and has been,
interpreted as simultaneously providing the origins of democracy and of
totalitarianism. This ambiguity emerges in the fact that the general
will requires no support from history, tradition, or custom (such as
monarchy), but it also "is always right"; that is, there are no checks
on its power.
Since no man has any natural authority over his fellow men, and since
force is not the source of right, conventions remain as the basis of all
lawful authority among men.
Now, as men cannot create any new forces, but only combine and direct
those that exist, they have no other means of self-preservation than to
form by aggregation a sum of forces which may overcome the resistance,
to put them in action by a single motive power, and to make them work in
concert.
This sum of forces can be produced only by the combination of many;
but the strength and freedom of each man being the chief instruments of
his preservation, how can he pledge them without injuring himself, and
without neglecting the cares which he owes to himself? This difficulty,
applied to my subject, may be expressed in these terms.
"To find a form of association which may defend and protect with the
whole force of the community the person and property of every associate,
and by means of which each, coalescing with all, may nevertheless obey
only himself, and remain as free as before." Such is the fundamental
problem of which the social contract furnishes the solution.
If then we set aside what is not of the essence of the social
contract, we shall find that it is reducible to the following terms:
"Each of us puts in common his person and his whole power under the
supreme direction of the general will, and in return we receive every
member as an indivisible part of the whole."
But the body politic or sovereign, deriving its existence only from
the contract, can never bind itself, even to others, in anything that
derogates from the original act, such as alienation of some portion of
itself, or submission to another sovereign. To violate the act by which
it exists would be to annihilate itself, and what is nothing produces
nothing.
It follows from what precedes, that the general will is always right
and always tends to the public advantage; but it does not follow that
the resolutions of the people have always the same rectitude. Men always
desire their own good, but do not always discern it; the people are
never corrupted, though often deceived, and it is only then that they
seem to will what is evil.
The public force, then, requires a suitable agent to concentrate it
and put it in action according to the directions of the general will, to
serve as a means of communication between the state and the sovereign,
to effect in some manner in the public person what the union of soul and
body effects in a man. This is, in the state, the function of
government, improperly confounded with sovereign of which it is only the
minister.
What, then, is the government? An intermediate body established
between the subjects and the sovereign for their mutual correspondence,
charged with the execution of the laws and with the maintenance of
liberty both civil and political.
It is not sufficient that the assembled people should have once fixed
the constitution of the state by giving their sanction to a body of
laws; it is not sufficient that they should have established a perpetual
government, or that they should have once [and] for all provided for the
election of magistrates. Besides the extraordinary assemblies which
unforeseen events may require, it is necessary that there should be
fixed and periodical ones which nothing can abolish or prorogue; so
that, on the appointed day, the people are rightfully convoked by the
law, without needing for that purpose any formal summons.
So soon as the people are lawfully assembled as a sovereign body, the
whole jurisdiction of the government ceases, the executive power is
suspended, and the person of the meanest citizen is as sacred and
inviolable as that of the first magistrate, because where the
represented are, there is no longer any representative.
These assemblies, which have as their object the maintenance of the
social treaty, ought always to be opened with two propositions, which no
one should be able to suppress, and which should pass separately by
vote. The first: "Whether it pleases the sovereign to maintain the
present form of government." The second: "Whether it pleases the people
to leave the administration to those at present entrusted with it."
I presuppose here what I believe I have proved, viz., that there is
in the State no fundamental law which cannot be revoked, not even this
social compact; for if all the citizens assembled in order to break the
compact by a solemn agreement, no one can doubt that it could be quite
legitimately broken.
Source: Merrick Whitcomb, ed., Translations and
Reprints from the Original Sources of European History, vol. 6
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania History Department, 1899),
14–16.
STOP HERE: 31 Jan 2012
John Locke, 1632-1704
Excerpt from the
Essay Concerning Human Understanding
(1690)
Let us then suppose the mind to
be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters,
without any ideas: -- How
comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast
store which the busy and
boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost
endless variety? To this I
answer, in one word, from EXPERIENCE. In that all
our knowledge is founded;
and from that it ultimately derives itself. Our
observation employed
either, about external sensible objects or about the internal
operations of our minds perceived
and reflected on by ourselves, is that which
supplies our understandings
with all the materials of thinking. These two are the
fountains of knowledge,
from whence all the ideas we have, or can naturally have,
do spring.
- 3-5 Pages Long not including a works
cited pages
- 1 Inch Margins all round, 12 Point Font,
Times New Roman, Cover page, Name and Page Number in Top left Corner.
Paper Topics
What is terrorism, why do people resort to terrorism, what
motivates people to become terrorists, are all terrorists the same, why do
terrorists attack the United States, does religion play a role,
Islamic extremists claim that western society USA in particular is at war
with Islam is this true?
Any other ideas clear with me on a case by case basis.
DUE Dates
Thesis Statement Friday 23 September
Rough Draft 26 Sept
Final Draft 30
-
- Introduction
- Statement of the Problem
- Thesis Sentence- What is your theory, what point are you going to
prove.
- This paragraph is a "road map" of your paper. It lays out all the
information you are going to give to support your theory. In it you tell
me what you are going to tell me.
- Body: Paragraphs 1 and 2
- History of the Problem (Include, perhaps, past attempts at
solutions. Work in sources.)
- Body: Paragraphs 3 and 4
- Extent of the Problem (Who is affected? How bad is it? Work in
sources.)
- Body: Paragraphs 5 and 6
- Repercussions of the Problem (Work in sources.)
- Body: Paragraphs 7 and 8
- Future solutions (not necessarily your own. More sources.)
- Conclusion
- Summarize your findings
Types of Papers
- Report
- Sometimes, a teacher will assign topics or give students a range of
topics to choose from and ask that the students write a research paper
on the topic. This type of research paper is really a form of individual
study. The measure of success is how well the student can conduct
research, analyze and organize the information and communicate it
clearly in written form. Frequently, reports require an oral
presentation to the class as well.
-
- Issue Analysis
- A research paper may highlight a particular issue or problem in a
field of study. The paper may focus on analysis of the issue and its
solutions, possibly from both historical and current perspectives. The
posture of the writer is frequently that of a neutral observer more than
an advocate for a particular position. The success of the paper is often
based on how completely and clearly the writer has identified the key
aspects of the issue and their significance to the field to which they
relate.
-
- Advocacy or Persuasion
- A research paper may involve taking a stand on an issue and
defending it against opposing points of view. The student will research
the issues and read others' arguments for and against. The paper will
anticipate and deflect arguments against the position, while presenting
supporting evidence in favor of the position. Success will depend on how
persuasively the paper makes its case and defends against possible
opposition.
The process of successful
research and writing involves building on what you know. You don't need to
know a lot about a subject in order to use it as your
topic, but choosing one you're totally unfamiliar with could be a mistake.
It may take so much time and effort to become informed about the subject
that you don't really have time to get into the depth required by your
assignment.
Jot down
your questions and ideas about possible topics
Use your notebook to starting recording
questions which interest you or ideas for possible topics.
You'll end up with a list of ideas and musings,
some of which are obviously ridiculous and not reasonable topics for your
paper, but don't worry about that at this point. Think about things which
interest you and which build upon some experience or knowledge you have or
build upon things you're presently learning in class.
Also see the links to
Reading
Techniques and Journal Writing for tips on how to use a journal to help
you in researching and writing a paper.
Brainstorm,
alone and with others
Toss ideas around in your mind. Bounce ideas
off of your classmates, your teacher or (heaven forbid) your siblings and
parents, to get their reactions and ideas. Many times another person will
have a fresh perspective you might not have thought of, or something they
say will trigger an idea for you.
Info Search - finding, collecting and
recording
This is the step most people think of when they
think of "library research." It's a hunt for information in any available
form (book, periodical, CD, video, internet) which is pertinent to your
chosen focus. Once you know the focus of your research, there are lots of
tools and strategies to help you find and collect the information you need.
Your information search should be focused and
specific, but pay careful attention to serendipity (finding, by
chance, valuable things you weren't even looking for). Keep your
mind open to continue learning about your focused topic.
Now is the time to carefully record your
sources in the bibliographic format required by your instructor. Every piece
of information you collect should have bibliographic information written
down before you leave the library. See the links to
Citing Sources for
information on how and when to use quotation, paraphrase and summary and how
to conform to the required styles of citation in different fields of study.
You should also pay attention to the quality of the information you find,
especially if you're using information you find on the internet. See the
linked articles about
Interpretation and Evaluation of Information.
Now is also the time to learn the details of
using search engines. Many of the sources you will want to use are online,
whether in the library or on the internet. See the
Info Search
section and specifically the
Skills for Online
Searching article.
Think
about clarifying or refining your focus
As you gather information about your focused
topic, you may find new information which prompts you to refine,
clarify, extend or narrow your focus. Stay flexible and adjust your
information search to account for the changes, widening or narrowing your
search, or heading down a slightly different path to follow a new lead.
Think
about what your thesis statement will be
After you have found a
general subject and have read a
general article for background, you must next decide how to write a
thesis statement on the topic you have chosen. Just as the creative artist
is lead to make a final statement of truth about some aspect of life by
observing and selecting from the myriad details of life's experiences, so
you, as a researcher, must be able to crystallize a statement of truth by
observing and selecting significant details from the wealth of material you
will find on your topic. This truth, stated in a simple sentence, provides
you with a thesis statement. It is a statement of your opinion, a conclusion
that, from what you have read, you have reason to believe can be proven, but
that you are scholar enough to discard or alter later if you uncover facts
that prove it invalid.
A good thesis statement never is a preconceived notion
or a personal prejudice that you could prove only by distorting or ignoring
facts, nor is it the statement of indisputable fact about which further
investigation would reveal nothing. It must express and idea that is
arguable or debatable or one that demands further explanation. Because it is
an idea, it must be expressed as a full sentence, never just a phrase.
Although at this point writing a thesis statement is necessarily result in a
temporary draft because you have not accumulated all the available facts
yet, it does provide you with an angle of vision from which you can continue
your research.
It is important to limit your thesis writing as soon as possible so that,
within the limits of the time in which you have to work and the projected or
assigned length of the finished paper, the truth of that thesis statement
can be investigated thoroughly. No factor is more often responsible for a
poor research paper than is the failure to limit a thesis. It is obvious
that the less area you try to cover, the more depth you can explore and the
more valuable your finished paper will be. As you do your research paper,
you will probably keep narrowing your thesis statement and limiting the
scope of your research to express an idea that can be thoroughly and
realistically handled within the space limitation of your paper.
One way to help you with writing a thesis statement is to make a very
short, research paper outline listing in sentence form the main ideas that
you hope to develop in order to prove your thesis. Then look to see if any
one of those points might serve as thesis as itself. Continue to go through
that process until you feel you have limited your thesis as much as
possible. Although this thesis is necessarily a temporary one because you
have not accumulated all the available facts yet, it does provide you with
an angle of vision from which you can continue your research. You now know
how you are going to focus on your subject and how you are going to select
the material for your research. You are ready now to formulate a research
paper outline.